Increasing Transparency and Metacognition
Students have successful, meaningful experiences when they understand how the components of a course connect together, when they have guidance on how to study, and when they are encouraged to take ownership of their learning. The Teaching and Learning Resource Center article, Supporting Student Learning in Your Course, explores this topic and provides practical advice for increasing transparency in course design.
Contract Grading is an assessment tool that pushes the boundaries of traditional grading schemes in order to promote open and clear instructor-student communication, infuse agency and autonomy into the process of student learning, and promote equitable learning communities with increased transparency and engagement. The Office of Distance Education's article Contract Grading Schemes provides an overview of this approach and 3 practical ways of implementing Contract Grading in your course.
Resources on This Topic:
- Supporting Student Learning in Your Course
- Contract Grading Schemes
- Customize Learning Pathways in Carmen via Mastery Paths
- Encourage and Embrace Failure
- Increasing Motivation and Maximizing Student Engagement: The Benefits of Gameful Learning
- ASC Teaching Forum: Transparency and Metacognition in Online Courses
Akella, D., Paudel, L., Wickramage, N., Rogers, M., & Gibson, A. (Eds.). (2022). Integrating Transparency in Learning and Teaching (TILT): An Effective Tool for Providing Equitable Opportunity in Higher Education. IGI Global.
The authors of this book emphasize transparency by using the Transparency in Learning and Teaching (TILT) framework in the college setting, with a particular focus on first-generation students and underrepresented students. They ‘strongly advocate for transparent education and provide guidance for overcoming the existing accessibility gap in higher education.’ Published in 2022, this book is relevant for today’s college students.
For this review, chapters 4 and 8 were focused on due to their relevancy to distance education. Chapter 4 examines the use of the TILT framework in two case studies and identifies equity issues existent in higher education. Chapter 8 covers the efficacy and challenges of designing and applying the TILT framework to online learning platforms.
Chapter 4, authored by Rod McRae, Katherine Green, and Jamie Brandenburg, shares how the TILT framework was implemented in face-to-face and asynchronous online courses as two vignette case studies to discuss the benefits of implementing its strategies in the classroom. Combining the literature on TILT and research on student inequities in college, as well as the results of two case studies, the authors explore how instructors can engage in purposeful and meaningful practices for student success. They identify ‘historically underserved populations as first-generation college students, non-White students, and students of low-socio-economic status’ (p,77). Students enter college with many misconceptions about how to be successful in their courses’ (p.69), which can impede their ‘ability to detect and respond successfully’ (p.70). By applying the TILT assignment framework to improve transparency, instructors are helping students understand the purpose of assignments; skills, knowledge, and motivation to complete tasks; and providing clear criteria for student achievement. Based on their research, the authors explain that not only is the framework successful for all students but by adopting TILT-aligned instructional practices and supporting faculty, higher education institutions would improve retention rates as well as lessen achievement and access inequalities.
Chapter 8 focuses on how higher education institutions (HEI) are working to improve the accessibility and transparency of the online learning experience for students. Instructors can redesign online learning materials to improve students' success using the Transparency in Learning and Teaching (TILT) framework developed by Dr. Mary-Ann Winkelmes. “Research based on a study that included 7 universities, 1180 students, and 35 faculty, minority, and disadvantaged students showed significant learning gains when TILT was applied (Winkelmes et al., 2016). TILT is a simple, replicable teaching intervention that can improve students’ success, especially that of first-generation, low-income, minority and disadvantaged university students. TILT encourages aligning and clarifying the content and assessment of different course activities to ensure that students achieve the course’s learning objectives” (pg.168).
The author explains the challenges of designing online classes and offers solutions using TILT principles to “bridge the digital divide.” Below are the subsections related to those challenges and solutions.
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Design a Transparent E-Syllabus
“A well-designed course should follow TILT principles by having a clear syllabus, well-defined grading rubrics, and have redundancy in learning materials for diverse learners” (pg.173).
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Develop Transparent Communications – “…more challenging to achieve online, therefore is it important to include it in the class design process.” Page 169, Savery (2005) developed the VOCAL framework for online communication (Visible, organized, compassionate, analytical, and leader-by-example).
With online forums, students cannot see nonverbal communication cues; therefore, being clear, concise, correct, and courteous should be prioritized.
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Use the Universal Design for Learning framework – “…that learning content is provided through numerous modalities which provides multiple means to engage in learning.” “…students’ opportunities to show their knowledge in multiple ways” (pg.170).
This section has multiple examples of appropriate UDL learning content.
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Design Transparent Assessments & Feedback
To conclude chapter 8, it is encouraged that, like any educator, the online instructor should follow the principle of transparency and utilize student feedback and perspectives regarding their online experiences to reflect on their own teaching practices. “Instructor presence remains a critical factor…Online pedagogical techniques need to accommodate learner competencies, characteristics, and preferred learning approaches” (pg.174).
Savery, J. R. (2005). BE VOCAL: Characteristics of successful online instructors. Journal of Interactive Online Learning, 4(2), 141-152.
The author uses the VOCAL approach to ‘identify the characteristics of an effective online instructor’ (p.142). He states, VOCAL is an acronym for Visible, Organized, Compassionate, Analytical and Leader-by-example (p.141). Instructor visibility impacts online interaction in that ‘students are more likely to adopt a passive role for themselves’ (p.143) if instructors lack a social presence in the online platform. The author further expands by providing suggested strategies for instructor visibility such as having a collaboration space for shared interests; timely feedback on student discussion forums; and use of video clips and audio messages. He states that these messages are intended to make students aware that the instructor knows who they are and what they are doing’ (p.144). Being organized when teaching in an online environment is important because there are limited opportunities to be spontaneous and the potential for wasted effort is greater.
Some suggested strategies for organization include a well-planned syllabus; providing due dates early; and utilizing different formats for online resources. Students enrolled in online courses do so with diverse needs and situations. Having compassion and ‘attending to the emotional well-being of the learner’ (p.146) promotes a more positive and productive learning environment. Two strategies that the author suggests using are; ‘giving students permission to communicate directly with the instructor’ and ‘using established ice-breaker techniques’ (p.147). Preparing, sharing, collecting, and interpreting assessment activities is part of being analytical. ‘Instructors need to manage the online learning environment and ensure that students are completing assignments and achieving the intended learning outcomes’ (p.147). Providing smaller and more frequent assessments and opportunities for students to reflect on course achievements are ways to track student progress. The last component of VOCAL is lead-by-example. Here the author reminds instructors that they ‘set the tone for the online learning community’ (p.148) and the application of best teaching practices is essential for student success.
In summary, Savery’s VOCAL approach integrates well-known best teaching practices with explicit evidence-based strategies for the online environment.
Ralston‐Berg, P., & Braatz, H. (2021). Online course design structure and interface. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 2021(169), 15–33.
The authors examine online courses’ design structure to share best practices and strategies for the user (designer, instructor, and learner). Throughout the article, the authors focus on ‘how building for consistency in a program interface helps design stronger and better-structured course,’ which in turn ‘helps optimize the learner’s experience and helps foster engagement in the course’ (p.16). Using research and providing applicable examples, they identify that transparency and consistency help give a sense of unity throughout the course. The figures throughout the article would be useful for newer faculty, transitioning from in-person to online educators, and graduate teaching associates when setting up their courses.
Visualizations on pages 21 and 25-28 explain course design transparency. Since OSU employs Carmen Canvas across campus institutions, students and educators are provided with a consistent learning management system (LMS). However, instructors utilize the LMS in different ways, from neatly organized modules and user-friendly links to assignments to having a soft presence and giving access to course-required readings; or, in extreme cases, dropping files for the required digital presence with very minimal changes. The authors illustrate examples of how consistency in courses impacts user experiences in positive outcomes.
The authors explain that the reason for having a consistent and cohesive course structure is so “learners and educators can focus on being present without struggling to locate key resources and pathways” (p.16). Thus, breaking down and reviewing all content components is essential for transparency. Building a strong framework during course design that uses transparency allows more time for students to spend on learning. Based on research by Conceicão and Howles (2021), the authors examine how instructors can be more intentional when creating learning experiences to support transparency. “Learners can learn more effectively if they are not constantly frustrated by searching for the content” (p.18). The authors highlight the use of composition principles to help communicate the purpose and path of information while engaging in learning activities.
In conclusion, the authors (as course designers) restate how it is important to communicate with both learners and educators to develop consistency and transparency in design standards.
Carpenter, R., O'Brien, S., Martin, T., Fox, H., Pinion, C., Hermes, S. S., Skubik-Peplaski, C., & Humphrey, C. (2021). Faculty Development for Transparent Learning & Teaching: Perspectives from Teacher-Scholars. Journal of Faculty Development, 35(2), 58+.
Situated from a higher education institution in Richmond, KY, this article offers faculty reflections on ways in which they have adjusted teaching strategies built on the TILT framework. To expand from previous reviews, these authors also write about being reflective educators. “Reflection can serve as a powerful tool in the continued enhancement of teaching as scholarly practice” and that it “encourages intentional practice, student-focused learning outcomes, enhanced student performance on assignments as well as our courses, and increased metacognition practices” (pg.59). This is a quick and easy-to-read article that readers will relate to when understanding how to incorporate TILT principles in their content.
Winkelmes, M.-A., Boye, A., & Tapp, S. (2019). Transparent Design in Higher Education Teaching and Leadership : A Guide to Implementing the Transparency Framework Institution-Wide to Improve Learning and Retention: Vol. First edition. Stylus Publishing.
This book is being included as it is an important reference for most of the literature reviews. From the description of the book: ‘This book offers a comprehensive guide to the Transparency in Learning and Teaching (TILT) framework that has convincingly demonstrated that implementation increases retention and improved outcomes for all students. Its premise is simple: to make learning processes explicit and equitably accessible for all students.
Transparent instruction involves faculty/student discussion about several important aspects of academic work before students undertake that work, making explicit the purpose of the work, the knowledge that will be gained, and its utility in students' lives beyond college; explaining the tasks involved, the expected criteria, and providing multiple examples of real-world work applications of the specific academic discipline. The simple change of making objectives and methods explicit – that faculty recognize as consistent with their teaching goals – creates substantial benefits for students and demonstrably increases such predictors of college students' success as academic confidence, sense of belonging in college, self-awareness of skill development, and persistence. This guide presents a brief history of TILT, summarizes both past and current research on its impact on learning, and describes the three-part Transparency Framework (of purposes, tasks, and criteria).
The three sections of the book in turn demonstrate why and how transparent instruction works, suggesting strategies for instructors who wish to adopt it; describing how educational developers and teaching centers have adopted the Framework; and concluding with examples of how several institutions have used the Framework to connect the daily work of faculty with the learning goals that departments, programs, and institutions aim to demonstrate.’
Anthonysamy, L. (2021). The use of metacognitive strategies for undisrupted online learning: Preparing university students in the age of pandemic. Education and Information Technologies, 26(6), 6881–6899.
This study examined the use of metacognitive strategies and their impact on college students' learning performance. The author identifies learning performance as ‘a measure that quantifies students’ overall attitude towards learning using subjective measures such as student satisfaction, student engagement, and attitude towards learning’ (p.6885).
Using a quantitative research design, the author examined ‘three specific metacognitive strategies: planning, monitoring, and regulating’ (p.6891). Metacognitive planning strategies, such as skimming through materials, and planning skills for time management, enable students to approach task planning more efficiently. Monitoring activities help ‘students through their thought process to actively participate in their learning process’ (p.6892). Regulation strategies provide students with opportunities to reflect upon their learning and goals.
The results of the study ‘affirm that all three metacognitive strategies enhance learning performance’ in the online setting (p.6891). To foster these strategies in students, instructors should become familiar with them and know how to facilitate ‘the development and acquisition of metacognitive skills among students’ (p.6893). This study has the potential to serve as a model for developing research projects related to metacognition best practices at OSU.
Hensley, L., Kulesza, A., Peri, J., Brady, A. C., Wolters, C. A., Sovic, D., & Breitenberger, C. (2021). Supporting Undergraduate Biology Students’ Academic Success: Comparing Two Workshop Interventions. CBE—Life Sciences Education, 20(4), ar60.
Students may struggle to put their understanding of effective learning strategies into practice if they cannot regulate their time, motivation, or study environment’ (p.2). In this article, the researchers present a study evaluating and comparing the impacts of two cocurricular workshop interventions - ‘one with a metacognitive focus on being self-aware and intentional as a learner and one with additional content on enacting strategies through managing time and overcoming procrastination’ (p.2). They posit that both workshops would benefit students, ‘but that students who participated in a Metacognition plus Time Management (Metacognition+TM) would experience greater benefits in terms of their development of adaptive academic beliefs and strategies, as well as increases in their exam grades’ (p.4). Another goal of the study ‘was to examine differences between students from majority and minoritized backgrounds’ (p.9) to expand ‘educational opportunities for students typically underrepresented or systematically excluded from STEM fields due to race or ethnicity’ (p.13).
Three main conclusions emerged based on the results. First, students in the Metacognition+TM group expressed greater commitment to earning a college degree. The researchers found this intriguing and suggest that ‘students who believe they are capable of learning and view themselves as in control of their learning behaviors are more likely to try new strategies to exert agency over their learning and achieved desired learning outcomes’ (p.13). Second, researchers found that the supplemental curriculum covered in the Metacognition+TM workshop helped students earn higher scores on two subsequent course exams. Lastly, even though their findings indicate similar impacts for both minoritized and majority students in the workshops; the additional academic support such as time management tools for the minoritized groups in the Metacognition+TM workshop resulted in greater success.
In conclusion, this article explains how ‘implementing a workshop intervention within the bounds of an academic course’ that ‘addresses metacognitive and self-regulated learning strategies may benefit students,’ (p.17) especially in challenging college courses. The researchers identify limitations to their study and suggest additional ‘research that assesses the cultural, social, and historical aspects of motivation and learning’ (p.17).
Karaoglan Yilmaz, F. G., & Yilmaz, R. (2021). Learning analytics as a metacognitive tool to influence learner transactional distance and motivation in online learning environments. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 58(5), 575–585.
In this experimental research study, the authors investigated the effect of the use of an LA-based/metacognitive feedback tool on students’ transactional distance and motivation. The authors define learning analytics (LA) ‘as a measurement, collection, analysis, and reporting of data about learners and their contexts, for understanding and optimizing learning and the environments in which it occurs.’ In previous studies, they have found one of the main problems encountered in online learning is the decrease of student motivation, especially for those that have not developed self-directed learning strategies. ‘LA can be used as a metacognitive tool to provide support and guidance to students’ (p.577). When examining LA literature, the authors found that one of the main issues learners face, is the gap ‘related to communication and understanding’ between the instructor/student/content and students or transactional distance. ‘As the number and quality of these (student-student, student-teacher, and student-content) interactions increase, transactional distance decreases’ (p.577).
The students in the experimental group received weekly individualized guidance from the instructor based on the data collected through quizzes, online entries, and interactions with the content. From the researcher’s data analysis, they concluded that providing LA-based feedback to students effectively increases motivation and decreases transactional distance. The authors explain that when instructors provide metacognitive supports, the feedback should be individualized as the ‘LA results may not be effective on its own’ (p.583). However, their data indicates that through the development of student-teacher interaction, the perception of transactional distance decreases. The authors have done extensive scholarship regarding learning analytics and transactional distance and referenced many other sources which would be helpful in exploring this topic further.
Literature Review completed by ASC Office of Distance Education Graduate Research Assistant Terrena Conson. Suggestions for other research to include are welcomed and appreciated!